Strategic Studies Quarterly

Abstract Introduction
Economic corruption is widely recognized as one of the major obstacles to sustainable development. In addition to reducing the efficiency of economic systems, it undermines public trust in institutions and governance. While a substantial body of research has examined corruption within governmental organizations, the rapid growth of quasi-governmental commercial enterprises calls for a renewed approach to understanding corruption in these entities.
Situated in an ambiguous position between the public and private sectors, quasi-governmental companies often benefit from the advantages of both. On the one hand, they enjoy access to public resources and state-backed privileges; on the other hand, their nominally private status allows them to avoid the stringent oversight typically imposed on public institutions. As a result of incomplete privatization processes, these organizations frequently exhibit neither the efficiency associated with the private sector nor the transparency and accountability expected of public institutions. This dual character creates fertile ground for various forms of economic misconduct.
Given the substantial financial resources controlled by these companies, corruption within them can lead to serious consequences, including disruptions in production processes, capital outflows, violations of minority shareholders' rights, and damage to the public interest. Therefore, effective corruption prevention requires a thorough understanding of the organizational conditions and mechanisms that facilitate corrupt behavior.
A review of the existing literature indicates that most studies have focused on macro-level determinants and structural dimensions of corruption, while relatively little attention has been paid to the internal organizational mechanisms and corruption-generating factors within quasi-governmental enterprises. Accordingly, the central question of this study is: What organizational conditions within quasi-governmental commercial companies create opportunities for economic corruption?
To address this question, the study employs a qualitative research design based on thematic analysis. Following a review of the relevant concepts and literature, the methodological framework is outlined, and the findings are presented and interpreted through a thematic matrix. The analysis focuses on identifying a set of intra-organizational opportunities that facilitate the misappropriation of corporate assets in quasi-governmental companies.
Methodology
This study adopts an interpretive qualitative approach aimed at uncovering hidden patterns of corruption. The research participants consisted of senior and middle-level managers with at least five years of managerial experience and postgraduate qualifications. Participants were selected through a two-stage sampling process involving purposive and snowball sampling until theoretical saturation was reached.
To collect data and enhance the credibility of the findings, eight in-depth semi-structured interviews were conducted. In parallel, twenty key organizational cases—including legal documents and audit reports—were examined over a six-month period.
The collected data were analyzed inductively using Braun and Clarke's six-phase thematic analysis framework with the aid of MAXQDA software. The resulting themes were subsequently organized into a thematic matrix. Throughout the research process, ethical considerations, including the confidentiality of documents and participants' identities, were strictly observed.
Findings and Discussion
The integration of the extracted themes with the theoretical framework reveals a three-dimensional structure that fosters corruption within quasi-governmental companies. The findings suggest that corruption emerges through the interaction of three interconnected factors:
1. Weak Corporate Governance: The Structural Foundation of Corruption
Weak corporate governance constitutes the primary foundation in which corruption develops. It creates opportunities for misconduct through three main mechanisms. First, deficiencies in organizational design, manifested in the prevalence of “golden signatures”, unquestioning employee compliance with superiors, the absence of effective oversight, and the frequent replacement or inexperience of managers. Second, the emergence of conflicts of interest, particularly through privileged access to information and the redirection of corporate resources toward personal gain. Third, ineffective human resource management, which contributes to information leakage and encourages former employees to engage in harmful competition with the company.
2. Destructive Organizational Culture: The Cognitive Facilitator
A dysfunctional organizational culture reduces the psychological barriers to misconduct by providing moral justifications for unethical behavior. This culture is characterized by the legitimization of informal networks through collusion, factionalism, and inadequate legal awareness. It is further reinforced by perceptions of organizational injustice arising from the absence of merit-based practices and inequitable compensation systems, both of which increase employees' propensity toward deviant behavior.
3. Defective Oversight: The Mechanism Sustaining Corruption
The findings indicate that oversight mechanisms are not necessarily absent; rather, they often fail to perform their deterrent function effectively. This failure stems from weaknesses in information systems, including reliance on outdated procedures, deficiencies in reporting and information management, and delayed detection of corrupt practices. Additional factors include inconsistent and discretionary supervision resulting from the lack of clear monitoring standards, the formalistic operation of internal control mechanisms such as boards of directors and supervisory committees, and excessive reliance on individual actors in oversight processes. Together, these shortcomings create a protective environment that enables misconduct to persist.
Conclusion
In contrast to previous studies that have primarily emphasized macro-level and political-economic explanations of corruption, this study demonstrates that the internal organizational structure of quasi-governmental companies plays a crucial role in the emergence of economic corruption.
The findings show that corruption arises from the interaction of three key factors: weak corporate governance, which creates opportunities for illicit gain; a destructive organizational culture, which provides motivation and moral justification for misconduct; and defective oversight, which emerged as the most prominent finding of the study. Although the oversight mechanism appears formally legitimate, its procedural nature and the breakdown of information systems significantly undermine its effectiveness and create a safe environment for corrupt actors.
The findings suggest that effective anti-corruption policies should move beyond purely punitive approaches and focus on organizational reform. Such reforms should include measures to address administrative injustices, particularly inequities in compensation and promotion systems, as well as the implementation of real-time, data-driven monitoring mechanisms. Furthermore, future research should examine industry-specific corruption mechanisms in order to develop more targeted and effective prevention strategies for the quasi-governmental sector.

Abstract Introduction
This study explores the concept of security within the tradition of Iranian political advice literature, with a particular focus on Saadi’s Bustan. Persian literature played an important role in shaping a form of political thought where writers sought to caution rulers by appealing to ethical principles and the best interests of both rulers and the public. Among these, Saadi’s Bustan stands out as a text that offers a distinctive political perspective, representing a shift within the tradition of Iranian political advice literature. Saadi’s view is grounded in a unique understanding of human nature. He locates the legitimacy and grandeur of political power in the people, urging rulers to prioritize the public good and protect their subjects.
Due to Saadi’s distinctive anthropology and his different view of the basis of political legitimacy, his writings present a different conception of security—one that can be called “human security” or “people-centered security.”
Building on this new perspective on politics and legitimacy, and drawing on Saadi’s unique ideas about human nature, this paper seeks to identify the security guidelines embedded in Bustan.
 
Methodology
This study uses a qualitative approach with thematic analysis. We employ a three-stage coding process—open coding, axial coding, and selective coding—to carefully examine the text of Bustan and identify the security-related themes that are woven throughout.
 
Discussion and Results
Saadi’s understanding of security is deeply rooted in his political anthropology. While he recognizes that political power in Iran was traditionally pastoral, absolute, and despotic, he introduces a significant shift in Iranian political advice literature by grounding political legitimacy in the people rather than in the ruler alone.
For Saadi, a secure society is the natural outcome of just and fair governance. Security depends on rulers exercising power through a framework of values and concepts that prioritize justice. The ruler must understand that his power comes from the people and must use it to create a just and secure society. He must take into account the needs of different social classes, seek counsel from elders and youth alike, respect both warriors and scholars, rely on knowledge and wisdom, employ capable individuals, act wisely against enemies, punish those who threaten public safety, and support foreigners, merchants, and traders to foster a positive image of the country internationally.
From Saadi’s perspective, a secure society is the direct result of such responsible and just governance. Security is the ruler’s responsibility, and the people remain the primary security referent object.
 
Conclusion
In Bustan, security emerges as a complex, multi-dimensional concept fundamentally shaped by the ruler’s approach to governance. If rulers govern based on divine will, immutable natural laws, and the transient nature of human life—while upholding principles like justice, fairness, wisdom, tolerance, and public welfare—they can ensure social security and peace. Saadi insists that security and peace are unattainable without these elements.
Since Saadi lived in an era when monarchs held absolute and unchecked power, he used ideas like fatalism, immutable natural laws, and human mortality to remind rulers that political power is a tool meant to protect and serve the people—not a personal, divine right or an inherited privilege. Political power, in this view, belongs collectively to society and must be used for the common good.
This understanding of political power, where legitimacy depends on the consent of the governed, anticipates key ideas of modern political thought and remains highly relevant today. In a time when states dominate politics and security is mainly defined in national terms, the concept of human security—which can be traced back to classical texts like Bustan—offers a valuable alternative.
By shifting the focus of security to ordinary people—once seen as “subjects” but now acknowledged as citizens—and basing rulers’ legitimacy on their consent and support, this approach puts the safety and well-being of the people at the core of policymaking. This shift in political legitimacy—from divine right to popular approval—places the security and comfort of citizens at the very center of governance.

Abstract Extended Abstract

Introduction:
Cultural security encompasses a broad and diverse range of aspects. To safeguard this, states implement comprehensive strategies such as communication restrictions, national culture promotion, and the development of educational programs. Additionally, the membership of the international treaties and conventions is another measure to reinforce the regulation of cultural consumption, thereby enhancing cultural security.
Numerous international treaties and conventions exist to safeguard and bolster the cultural heritage of nations. Among these, the Berne Convention for the Protection of Literary and Artistic Works stands out as a significant one, with widespread global participation. This convention primarily aims to establish fundamental principles for copyright protection and to uphold the rights of copyright holders. In essence, it seeks to advocate for creators in the realms of science and culture. However, the convention also plays a crucial role in regulating and overseeing the consumption of cultural and artistic products. This, in turn, can have significant implications, either strengthening or undermining a country’s cultural security.
This study tries to explain the consequences of accepting the Berne Convention on the cultural security of the Islamic Republic of Iran. Also, a proper strategy is suggested so that it fits the daily needs of Iranian society and has a positive effect on its cultural security.
Methodology:
Initially, available resources concerning the repercussions of Iran’s accession to the Berne Convention were identified, and 330 arguments from both proponents and critics were extracted. These items were subsequently categorized into 15 overarching themes using a ‘Thematic Analysis’ approach. These themes served as the foundation for a ‘descriptive and analytical review’ of the Berne Convention’s impact on Iran’s cultural security. In this context, the viewpoints of proponents and critics were analyzed across seven dimensions: cultural access, per capita cultural consumption, resistance to cultural imperialism, protection of national interests, cultural independence and self-sufficiency, innovation and creativity, and jurisprudential issues.
Discussion and Results:
For the authors of this study, the paramount consideration is the compelling argument put forth by proponents of the Berne Convention, as compared to its critics. They assert that by joining this convention, the Islamic Republic of Iran can acquire significant tools to fortify national identity and ward off cultural encroachment. This is primarily because the convention encompasses regulations and frameworks that can assist the state in cultivating and propagating Iranian-Islamic culture, while simultaneously curbing the illicit trafficking and consumption of Western media products.
Conversely, if the Berne Convention is not accepted, foreign cultural products could become widely accessible at low cost or even free of charge. This could lead to a surge in the smuggling and consumption of such products, which are often laden with colonial ideological indoctrination. With the rapid advancement of communication technologies, this issue could escalate, leading to more severe consequences. It could engender a sense of despair within society, hinder social cohesion and unity, and give rise to various cultural and social crises.
Advocates also argue that joining this convention is a means of safeguarding the nation’s public and national interests. It lays the groundwork for global cooperation through cultural and scientific exchange, fostering the country’s cultural, artistic, and scientific growth. By enhancing these conditions domestically, it opens avenues for international engagement and draws greater attention to Iranian-Islamic culture. Overall, it paves the way for the development of a cultural and artistic economic market, thereby strengthening and shaping the country’s cultural system.
Conclusion:
This study concludes that the Berne Convention can serve as an international legal framework for achieving the country’s social and cultural objectives, as well as enhancing its cultural security conditions. Therefore, to further bolster cultural security and foster the growth of the nation’s cultural system, it is recommended that policymakers facilitate the necessary coordination among cultural, artistic, and scientific institutions for the country’s accession to this convention.